複製經驗 拒絕刻板印象

■ 廖明坤（實踐大學企業管理研究所及國際貿易學系助理教授）、于卓民（政治大學商學院企業管理學系教授）
Replicating Experiences, not Stereotypes
The Hua Sheng Corporation is a Taiwanese-listed company with departments based on function: food business and chemical business. The food business department primarily produces/sells flour and barley, while the chemical business department mainly produces/sells PA and DOP. Hua Sheng has more than 300 million TWD in capital, and sales revenue of 460 million TWD.
In 1995, the company felt that the Taiwanese market had reached saturation. The market potential and low production costs in China led it to establish Chiun Shan Chemical Industrial in Shanghai (1995) and the Lu Hua Food Corporation in Shandong. (1997)
1.Hua Sheng Corporation's operating strategy in China
Generally speaking, Hua Sheng's Chinese operating strategy can be stated in the following way:
(1) Duplicate strategies that have proven successful in Taiwan, with adjustments if needed. Everything from management to marketing and R&D is based on the existing policy and protocol of Hua Sheng's Taiwanese headquarters;
(2) Major strategic and financial decisions are made by Hua Sheng's Taiwanese headquarters, while production, marketing and HR management decisions are handled locally.
(3) Headquarters monitors and controls the operations of subsidiaries by reviewing financial statements, holding regular, periodic management meetings, and sending supervisors to subsidiaries to check up on them.
2.Operating strategy results and obstacles encountered
Chiun Shan has become the biggest chemical company in its geographical area, with sales revenue of 250 million TWD and steadily growing profits. The sales revenue of Lu Hua has reached 50 million RMB, and after adjusting its operation strategies, awareness of the company has increased to the extent that it has also started to show a profit.
The two subsidiaries are located in different areas: one in Shanghai, and the other in Shandong. They are different in nature and the people in charge are of different backgrounds, so it would not necessarily be appropriate to implement the same policy for both subsidiaries. On the other hand, completely duplicating the successful Taiwanese operating strategy in China may also not always be suitable. It is therefore important to consider what operation strategy will maximize the subsidiaries' performance, while achieving synergy on a global level.
華勝公司為台灣上市公司，公司的組織結構採用事業部的劃分方式，分為食品事業部及化工事業部，食品事業部的主要產品有麵粉及大麥片；化工事業部的主要產品有夫酸胺酐(PA)及可塑劑夫酸二辛酯(DOP)，公司資本額為30億元，營業額為46億元。鑑於國內的食品及化工產業已經發展至成熟階段，競爭太過競烈，且大陸市場廣大及生產成本低等誘因，1995年在上海成立群山化學工業股份有限公司；1997年於山東成立陸華食品股份有限公司，將經營觸角延伸至中國大陸，展開大陸市場開疆闢土之旅。
一、華勝大陸子公司經營策略
大體而言，華勝公司的經營策略可歸納為以下幾項基本觀念：
1.移植台灣的成功經驗於大陸，視投資地區需要略做調整。無論是人員的管理、產品的行銷或技術的開發，都以台灣總公司現行的方法、制度及觀念發展。
2.重要的策略及財務決策由台灣總公司主導，其他生產、行銷及人力資源決策，則部分由子公司的負責人決定。
3.藉由財務報表的掌控及定期或不定期的高階主管會議，並配合由總公司派員至子公司訪視，控制子公司的經營成效是否如總公司預期。
二、經營成果及問題
上海群山公司，營業額已達25億元，是當地最大的化工公司，且獲利穩定成長；山東陸華公司的營業額也有5,000萬人民幣，經營策略調整及知名度打開後，目前也有少許利潤。
兩個子公司分別在上海及山東二個不同地區，公司特性也不相同，當地的負責人各有不同的背景，採用同樣的授權方式是否適合；移植台灣的成功經驗於大陸，是否會有水土不合的情形產生，什麼樣的經營策略最能發揮各地子公司的功能，並達到全球經營的綜效，都是可以再思考的方向。
【討論問題】
Hua Sheng employs the same management strategy for both Lu Hua and Chiun Shan. Objectively speaking, this makes it easier for headquarters to manage the subsidiaries, and helps to prevent claims that headquarters favors one over the other. On the other hand, the company could conceivably adjust its policy to reflect the differences between the subsidiaries. The question of whether to adjust company policy depends on the subsidiaries' positioning and profitability, as well as the organizational commitment of their employees.
If you were the top manager at Hua Sheng, what would you do?
(1) What factors would you take into consideration when deciding how much power (should be delegated to the subsidiaries?
2) If you decided to replicate the successful Taiwanese experience with the subsidiaries, would you replicate it exactly, or would you modify it If you choose to modify it, what would you change?
【Analysis】
(1) The company should be cautious when replicating successful experience.
Most people would choose to replicate successful past experience in a similar situation, and many multinational enterprises do this with their overseas subsidiaries. However, expatriates sent to manage subsidiaries are often not familiar with the local culture, or lack cultural sensitivity. They often have a mindset more appropriate to their native countries when evaluating the new environment, which result in misjudgments. More often, expatriate managers form a stereotypical image of the citizens of their adopted country, and so fail to notice the differences between people. Such misconceptions often cause unnecessary conflicts and misunderstandings, turning an otherwise successful experience into a burden.
(2) When granting authority to overseas subsidiaries, the environment, the company, the person in charge of the company should be taken into consideration.
Successful and judicial use of authority can increase the overall performance and adaptability of a subsidiary. Multinational enterprises often have subsidiaries in many different parts of the world, and the challenges they face differ according to their geographic locations. In addition, inherent differences in resources, networks and managerial backgrounds should be taken into consideration when making decisions about authority.
(3) Progressing mentality of a multinational enterprise manager.
When a company first starts the process of internationalization, a lack in international operating experience will often lead it to base its strategies on the existing policy and strategies of headquarters. The company will duplicate management, marketing and production and R&D decisions in its overseas subsidiaries. As the subsidiaries accumulate more experience in a foreign country, the company should begin to examine the differences between them and grant them more autonomy. In the end, in order to develop global synergy, companies must learn to treat the whole world as a single market and to create the best operating strategy without relying too heavily on headquarters.
華勝公司對於大陸的陸華公司及群山公司，皆採用相同的管理方式，客觀而言，進行一視同仁的管理模式，可以消除子公司差別對待的聲音，也方便總公司的管理，這種管理思維有其合理性。然而，就個別企業而言，卻必須考慮所處內外部環境的差異性而有所調整，因此該經營策略是否應該加以調整，將取決於大陸子公司定位、公司獲利及員工向心力等考驗。倘若您是華勝公司的決策主管，請問：
1.將根據那些考慮來決定兩個子公司的授權方式？
2.如複製台灣成功經驗於大陸分支機構，會全盤複製，還是加以調整？如果加以調整，會考慮那些？
【評析】
一、 成功經驗的複製要小心
大體而言，複製成功的經驗於類似的情境，是大多數人會採行的成功模式，因此多國企業至海外建立子公司，通常會採用在母國實施有效的成功方式。但是常常因為子公司的負責人缺乏文化的敏感度，在面對新文化時，常會不自覺地以自已國家的觀點，來評估周遭環境，以致容易造成誤判或錯誤決策。更多時候，對於同一國家或地區的人民，產生文化集群的刻板印象，將一套商業策略運用於具有相似特徵的國家或地區之中，而忽略這些國家或地區的差異性，造成不必要的衝突與誤解，使成功的經驗複製變成負擔，得不償失。
二、海外子公司的授權要同時考慮環境、公司及負責人差異
成功的授權可以提昇子公司的經營績效及其適應力。就多國企業而言，每個子公司設廠地點不同，所處環境的不確定性都會有所不同，再加上子公司所擁有的資源與能力，以及網路關係等特性的差異，還有負責人的背景影響，都是在進行授權決策時，需要綜合考慮之處。
三、多國企業的管理者心態演進
多國企業剛進行國際化之初，由於缺乏國際營運經驗，因此會傾向採用母國總公司的作法為依歸，將母國的現行作法，無論管理、行銷、生產或研發全盤加諸於國外分支單位；隨著海外營運經驗的累積，開始考慮子公司所處環境的差異，充分給予國外分支單位管理上的自主，最後基於綜效的考慮，將地球視為單一市場，以全球宏觀的角度，不偏向母公司或地主國，制定出最佳的經營策略。
【策略小辭典】
管理者心態(Management orientation)
係由美國學者Howard Perlmutter(1969)所提出，他歸類多國企業的管理者在管理海外子公司時，會由母國導向(ethnocentric orientation)，複製母國的一切再過渡為當地國導向(polycentric orientation)，給予海外子公司充分管理自主權，到最後演進為無文化偏見，以全球宏觀角度因時因地權衡管理與決策的全球導向(geocentric orientation)。
刻板印象(stereotype)
以人們「屬於某一個團體成員」的認知來評斷某人時，這樣的簡易評估他人的做法，即為刻板印象。例如「大陸人衛生觀念」很差，「已婚員工比未婚者更穩定」，都是刻板印象的例子。
【2005/08/28 經濟日報】